The collective stress of high physical activity, sleep deprivation, and energy deficit (EDef) (i.e., failing to match total daily dietary energy intake with total daily energy expenditure ) during strenuous military training and operations can impair physical performance, ,, ]. Abbreviations: BIA, bioelectrical impedance analysis D 2O, deuterium DXA, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry DSMB, data and safety monitoring board ECW, extracellular water EDef, energy deficit EIEE, exercise-induced energy expenditure FBR, fractional breakdown rate FFM, fat-free mass FSR, fractional synthetic rate HR, heart rate HRR, heart rate reserve ICW, intracellular water ID, identification IRB, Institutional Review Board MRE, Meal Ready-to-Eat, OPS I Optimizing Performance for Soldiers Trial I, OPS II Optimizing Performance for Soldiers Trial II, PAR-Q+ Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire+, PB protein breakdown, PBRC Pennington Biomedical Research Center, PLA placebo experimental group, PS protein synthesis, Q whole-body nitrogen flux, RER respiratory exchange ratio, RM repetition maximum, RNA ribonucleic acid, RPE ratings of perceived exertion, SUSOPS sustained, multi-stressor military operations TBW, total body water TDEE, total daily energy expenditure TDEI, total daily energy intake TEST, testosterone experimental group VO 2max, maximal cardiorespiratory fitness VO 2peak, peak oxygen uptake WBGT, wet bulb globe temperature

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